In this book chapter, titled “Expectations and Placebo Effects in the Context of Cognitive Training,” professors of psychology Susanne Jaeggi and Aaron Seitz, with co-authors Jocelyn Parong and C. Shawn Green, discuss the difficulties of quantifying the improvements brought on by cognitive training, as “the curse of specificity” means one form of cognitive training will often not create improvement in other areas. “The very nature of cognitive training interventions,” they write, “makes placebo effects a possible concern.”